Sport as a vehicle for gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls

". . . [M]y trainers taught me to believe in myself . . . I was inspired and learned determination and dis­cipline. Sports allow you to get to know yourself."

—Nawal El Moutawakel,

the first Olympic gold medallist

from Morocco (1984 Olympics

—hurdles)³⁹

The relationship between gender equality and sport is not solely about achieving equality in women's partici­pation and treatment within sports, but it is also about promoting "sport for gender equality", or harnessing the potential of sport for social empower­ment of women and girls. Sport offers a valuable channel to strengthen wom­en's and girls' capabilities and provide information on important social issues, such as health, HIV/AIDS and women's rights. Women's and girls' participation in sport can also challenge gender ster­eotypes and break down entrenched discriminatory attitudes and behav­iours. Myriam Lamare, a World Boxing

Association champion from France, has said that the punches she lands shake the foundations of society.⁴⁰

Empowering women and girls through sport

Sport can be an important tool for social empowerment through the skills and values learned, such as teamwork, negotiation, leadership, communica­tion and respect for others. The social benefits of participation in sport are thought to be especially important for girls, given that many girls, particularly in adolescence, have fewer oppor­tunities than boys for social interac­tion outside the home and beyond family structures.⁴¹ Women and girls acquire new interpersonal networks, develop a sense of identity and access new opportunities, allowing them to become more engaged in school and community life.⁴² Participation in sport also enables women and girls to enjoy freedom of expression and movement and increase their self-esteem and self-confidence.

It has also been argued that sport and physical education can serve as the basis for a sense of "positive embodi­ment". This concept goes beyond the idea of physical fitness and incorpo­rates psychological benefits and the

pursuit of active spiritual practices. The psychological benefits of physical activity, essential fora sense of positive embodiment, can be acquired through the enjoyment of the physical activity, self-chosen levels of competition, and the provision of social support from the family and the community.⁴³

The concept of positive embodiment implies that women and girls have the right and responsibility to create active, healthy lifestyles to sustain vitality in their lives. There are psychological, emotional and medical benefits to doing so, as well as significant broader

economic and social gains. The con­cept starts with traditional fitness and adds psychosocial wellness strategies and the pursuit of active self-care for body, mind and spirit. Positive embodi­ment requires a lifestyle incorporating self-assertion and self-care which is the basis of a vigorous and satisfying sense of one's own body.⁴⁴

Positive embodiment can be seen as a model of self-care that allows women to achieve a balance between caring for themselves and caring for others. Most women prioritize the needs of others before their own needs, a pattern that often leads to neglect of themselves. As a result, women deplete their resources of time and energy in the care of others. Self-care involves the creation of personal time and space for women and opportunities for posi­tive interaction of the mind, body and spirit. Adoption of the physical embodi­ment approach, with its critical con­cept of active self-care, would require complex changes in lifestyle for many women.⁴⁵

Sport can serve as a vehicle to improve women's and girls' leadership roles and participation in decision-making. The acquisition of valuable skills in management, negotiation and decision-making empowers women and girls to become leaders in all areas of community life, as well as in the household.

The Montreal Tool Kit—A Manual for Change

The Montreal Tool Kit was developed for the Third World Conference on Women and Sport as a reference manual containing 20 tools to help women activists working to increase women's participation in sports. The manual includes tools on advocacy and awareness-raising, such as "Creating an advocacy strategy" and "Non-sexist sport commentary for media"; tools for changing organizations, such as "Terms of reference for a Women and Sport Committee" and "Sample harassment policy"; tools for individual development, such as "Building a case for mentoring"; and other tools for action, such as "Measuring your success".

World Conference, held in May 2006 in Kumamoto, Japan,³⁰ concluded with the Kumamoto Commitment to Collab­oration, which expressed participants' commitment to building a collabora­tive network in order to realize gender equality in and through sport.³¹

Regional processes

Regional bodies also address gender equality issues in sport. For example, in 2005, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe passed rec­ommendation 1701 on discrimination against women and girls in sport. The recommendation calls on the Commit­tee of Ministers to promote women's sport and women's participation in sport; accord greater importance to school-based physical education for women and girls; conduct awareness-raising among officials in sport, edu­cation and health; support women's participation in top-level sport; ensure equality in terms of pay, prize money and bonuses; ensure that women play a greater role in ruling bodies of sports organizations; conduct an in-depth study of national sport policies; ensure collection of gender-specific statistics; and increase media coverage of women in sport.³² The recommen­dation also calls for the combating of sexual abuse in relation to sport, which follows on from the 2000 Council of Europe resolution on the prevention of sexual harassment and abuse of

women, young people and children in sport (3/2000).³³

In 2002, the African Sports Confed­eration of Disabled (ASCOD) estab­lished a policy on disabled women's and girls' participation in sport and rec­reation. The policy aims to increase the participation of women and girls at all levels of sport and recreation in order to achieve gender equality, and calls on the Confederation and its member nations to bear the duty of advising Ministers of Sport on ways to meet the targets set out in the policy.³⁴

In 2001, the first Asian Conference on Women and Sport, held in Osaka, Japan, led to the establishment of the Asian Working Group on Women and Sport (AWG). The Working Group developed the Asian Women and Sport Action Plan 2001, which sought to expand equal opportunities for women and men and girls and boys in Asia to participate fully in sport.³⁵ The sec­ond Asian Conference, held in Qatar in 2003, adopted the "Doha Confer­ence Resolutions", which encouraged all parties to actively support women and sport.³⁶ The "Yemen Challenge", adopted at the third Asian Conference in Yemen in 2005, emphasized the importance of continued promotion and development of women in sport in Asia and included a request for all Asian Governments and National Olympic Committees to formulate a national women and sport policy by

the 2006 Doha Asian Games, and to include therein a special chapter on women with disabilities.³⁷

The Commonwealth Games Federa­tion also promotes the role of women in sport as participants and as decision-makers. Regulation 6 of its March 2006 Constitution states that the Common­wealth Games retains its status as a leader in promoting gender equality, and that future programmes in sports will have a balanced participation and profile for males and females. Article 17 of the Constitution also states that both women and men shall contribute at least 20 per cent or two of the repre­sentatives on the Executive Board and on the Sports Committee and any other committees and commissions formed by the Executive Board.³⁸

The Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport

The Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport calls for:

• Equality in society and sport;

• Sport facilities that meet the needs of women;

• An increase in the number of women coaches, advisers and decision-
makers in sport;

• Education, training and development programmes that address gender
equality;

• Information and research on women and sport;

• Allocation of resources for sportswomen and women's programmes;
and

• Incorporation of the promotion of gender equality and sharing of good
practices into governmental and non-governmental policies and pro­
grammes on women and sport.

adopted at the Third IWG World Con­ference in Montreal, Canada, in 2002, which recognized that the path to real­izing these broader goals involves a

variety of actions, including information and advocacy campaigns and the inte­gration of sport into community devel­opment projects.²⁹ The Fourth IWG

Resolution of the Second International Olympic Committee World Conference on Women and Sport

The resolution, adopted in 2000, calls for a number of strategies and actions to be taken by the International Olympic Committee, Governments and international organizations, including the United Nations system, such as:

• Meeting the 20 per cent goal of women in decision-making by 2005;

• Increasing scholarships and training for women athletes, coaches and
other officials;

• Raising awareness about the positive influence of the Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women on the
development of physical activity and sport for women and girls;

• Urging the Commission on the Status of Women to recognize the impor­
tance of physical activity and sport to women's and girls' development
at all stages of their lives;

• Raising awareness about the importance of quality physical education;

• Developing strategies and educational material to support physical edu­
cation for girls;

• Implementing sexual harassment policies, including codes of conduct;
and

• Working with the media to ensure a more accurate projection of wom­
en's sport.

International processes

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) plays a central leadership role in the world of sport, and its policies set standards in international, regional and national sporting events and pro­cedures. In 1994, it requested that the Olympic Charter be amended to include an explicit reference to the

need for action on women and sport. This is reflected in the current Charter, adopted in 2004, which states that one of the roles of the Committee is to "encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures with a view to implement­ing the principle of equality of men and women."²⁷

In 1995, the International Olympic Committee established a Working Group on Women and Sport, which was elevated to the status of a Com­mission in 2004. The Women and Sport Commission, which meets once a year, monitors the participation of women in the Olympics as well as their represen­tation in decision-making. The Commis­sion organizes quadrennial IOC World Conferences on Women and Sport to assess progress made in women and sport within the Olympic Movement, define priority actions and increase the involvement of women.

The International Working Group on Women and Sport, an indepen­dent coordinating body of government organizations, aims to be a catalyst for the advancement and empowerment of women and sport globally. It was established in 1994 at the First World Conference on Women and Sport, held in Brighton, United Kingdom, organized by the British Sports Council and sup­ported by the International Olympic Committee. At this conference, the Brighton Declaration was adopted and endorsed by the 280 delegates from 82 countries representing Governments, NGOs, National Olympic Committees, international and national sport fed­erations, and educational and research institutions.

The Second International Working Group on Women and Sport World Conference on Women and Sport took place in Windhoek, Namibia, in 1998. The Windhoek Call for Action further developed the aims of the Brighton Declaration, calling for the promotion of sport as a means to realize broader goals in health, education and women's human rights.²⁸This idea was strength­ened in the Montreal Communiqué

Other international and regional policy frameworks

Other processes have also contributed to global and regional policy frame­works on women, gender equality and sport. International bodies that have been particularly active in developing such frameworks include the Interna­tional Council of Sport Science and Physical Education, the International Olympic Committee, the International Paralympic Committee and numerous groups and networks, such as the Inter­national Working Group on Women and Sport, WomenSport International and the International Association of Physi­cal Education for Women and Girls.

United Nations treaty bodies

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women provides binding obligations for States parties on eliminating dis­crimination against women and girls in the area of sports and physical educa­tion. Article 10 calls for States parties to take all appropriate measures to elimi­nate discrimination against women in order to ensure to them equal rights with men in the field of education, including ensuring the same opportuni­ties to participate actively in sports and physical education. Article 13 calls for

States parties to take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in other areas of eco­nomic and social life in order to ensure, on the basis of equality between women and men, the same rights, including the right to participate in recreational activities, sports and all aspects of cultural life.²⁵

The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has also reminded States parties, in its gen­eral recommendation No. 25 on tempo­rary special measures, that temporary special measures, such as positive action, preferential treatment or quota systems, should be implemented in the areas of sports, culture and recreation. The Committee further emphasized that, where necessary, such measures should be directed at women subjected to multiple discrimination, including rural women.²⁶

Sport and the Beijing Platform for Action

Under the critical area of concern on education, the Platform calls for Gov­ernments, educational authorities and other educational and academic insti­tutions to provide accessible recreational and sport facilities and establish and strengthen gender-sensitive programmes for girls and women of all ages in education and community institutions and support the advancement of women in all areas of athletics and physical activity, including coaching, training and administration, and as participants at the national, regional and international levels.

In relation to health, the Platform calls for Governments to create and support programmes in the education system, workplace and community to make opportunities to participate in sport, physical activity and recreation available to girls and women of all ages on the same basis as they are made available to men and boys.

In the critical area of concern on power and decision-making, the

Platform notes that the underrepresentation of women in decision-making positions in the areas of art, culture, sport, the media, education, religion and law have prevented women from having a significant impact on many key institutions.

In relation to the situation of the girl-child, the Platform calls for Govern­ments and international and non-governmental organizations to promote the full and equal participation of girls in extracurricular activities, such as sport, drama and cultural activities.

Source: United Nations (1995). Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, 4-15 September 1995. New York (United Nations publication. Sales No. 96.IV.13). Critical Area of Concern B, Education and training of women, Strategic Objective B.2, para. 83 (m). See the Critical Area of Concern C, Women and health, Strategic Objective C.2, para. 107 (f); Critical Area of Concern G, Women in power and decision-making, para. 183; and, Critical Area of Concern L, The girl-child, Strategic Objective L.4, para. 280 (d).

ognized the need for gender equality in sport and physical education. It called on Governments and regional and international organizations, including the United Nations system, to ensure equal opportunities for women and girls in cultural, recreational and sport activities, as well as in participation in athletics and physical activities at the national, regional and international lev­els, such as in access, training, compe­tition, remuneration and prizes.²³

The understanding that sport pro­grammes can be an important vehicle for promoting gender equality has con­tinued to advance, particularly since the establishment of the International Year of Sport and Physical Education. In 2006, the General Assembly, for the first time, specifically invited Member States to initiate sport programmes

to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women.24

United Nations intergovernmental processes

The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, provides important policy recommendations on women, gender equality and sport. The Platform calls for the provision of accessible rec­reational and sport facilities by educa­tional institutions, the establishment and strengthening of gender-sensitive programmes for girls and women of all ages in education and community institutions, and the creation and sup­port of programmes in the education system, workplace and community to make opportunities to participate in sport and physical activity available to girls and women of all ages, on the same basis as they are made available to men and boys.²¹

The Commission on the Status of Women, the principal global policymak-ing body on gender equality, addressed sport and physical activity in its review of progress made in the implementa­tion of the Beijing Platform for Action. In agreed conclusions 1999/17 (I) on women and health, the Commission called on Governments, the United Nations system and civil society to encourage women to practise regular sport and recreational activities, which have a positive impact on women's health, well-being and fitness through­out the whole life cycle, and ensure that women enjoy equal opportunities to practise sport, use sport facilities and take part in competitions.²²

The outcome of the five-year review of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action rec-

Policy/normative frameworks on women, gender equality and sport

"States parties shall take all appro­priate measures to eliminate discrim­ination against women in other areas of economic and social life in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of women and men, the same rights, in particular . . . [t]he rights to partici­pate in recreational activities, sports and all aspects of cultural life."

—Convention on the Elimination

of All Forms of Discrimination

against Women (article 13)

Within the established framework of human rights and sport for develop­ment and peace, a number of United Nations intergovernmental and treaty body processes, as well as other inter­national and regional processes, have specifically addressed some of the critical gender equality issues in sport and physical education. Global and regional policy/normative frameworks on women, gender equality and sport have been developed.

These policy/normative frameworks have laid the foundation for a just and equitable world of sport for women and men. They have also recognized the power of sport as a catalyst for social and economic development. Imple-

mentation of these commitments has begun in all regions, and has resulted in real and tangible progress for gen­der equality and the empowerment of women and girls. However, the imple­mentation of the frameworks continues to be constrained by gender-based dis­crimination in all areas and at all levels of sport and physical education.

Sport and the MDGs

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. Providing develop­ment opportunities will help fight poverty. The sport industry, as well as the organization of large sporting events, creates opportunities for employ­ment. Sport provides life skills essential for a productive life in society. The opportunity to acquire such skills is often more limited for women, making their access to sport of critical importance.

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education. Sport and physical edu­cation are an essential element of quality education. They promote posi­tive values and skills that have an immediate and lasting impact on young people. Sport activities and physical education generally make school more attractive and improve attendance.

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. Increas­ing access for women and girls to physical education and sport helps build confidence and promotes stronger social integration. Involving girls in sport activities alongside boys can help overcome prejudice that often contributes to social vulnerability of women and girls.

Goals 4 and 5: Reduce child mortality and improve maternal health. Sport can be an effective means to provide women with a healthy lifestyle as well as to convey important messages on a wide range of health issues.

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. Sport can help engage otherwise difficult-to-reach populations and provide positive role models delivering prevention messages. The most vulnerable popula­tions, including women and girls, are highly responsive to sport-targeted pro­grammes. Sport can also effectively assist in overcoming prejudice, stigma and discrimination.

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability. Sport is ideal for raising awareness about the need to preserve the environment. The interdepen-dency between the regular practice of outdoor sports and the protection of the environment is clear.

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development. Sport offers diverse opportunities for innovative partnerships for development and can be used as a tool to build and foster partnerships between developed and developing nations to work towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals.

Source: Adapted from International Year of Sport and Physical Education (2005). A year of sports. Available from http://www.un.org/sport2005/a_year/ mill_goals.html

 

be based on the "sport for all" model, ensuring that all groups are given the opportunity to participate, particularly those who gain additional benefits, such as women, persons with disabili­ties and young people.¹⁹

In 2004, the General Assembly adopted resolution 58/5, "Sport as a means to promote education, health, development and peace", which invited Governments, the United Nations, the specialized agencies, where appro­priate, and sport-related institutions to work collectively so that sport and physical education could present opportunities for solidarity and coop­eration, in order to promote a culture of peace and social and gender equal­ity and to advocate dialogue and har­mony. It recognized the power of sport to contribute to human development and proclaimed the year 2005 as the International Year of Sport and Physical Education.

The International Year aimed to facilitate better knowledge-sharing among different key stakeholders, raise awareness and create the right condi­tions for the implementation of more sport-based human development pro­grammes. It provided a unique oppor­tunity to use the power of sport to mo­bilize individuals, organizations and local communities, drawing together diverse groups in a positive and supportive environment. During the International Year, over 100 international initiatives and thousands of local projects were undertaken by Governments, the United Nations system, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the private sector. An unprecedented amount of media attention was accorded to the issue of sport and physical educa­tion. The notion of "sport for all" was emphasized and the principle of non-discrimination was upheld as a funda­mental human right.

In 2006, Secretary-General Kofi Annan presented the United Nations Action Plan on Sport for Development and Peace, which was included in his report on "Sport for Development and Peace: the way forward".²⁰ The

action plan serves as an initial road map for a three-year period to expand and strengthen partnerships, sport for development and peace programmes and projects, as well as advocacy and communications activities. The plan calls for the development of a global framework to strengthen a common vision, define priorities and further raise awareness to promote and mainstream easily replicable sport for development and peace policies. It also calls for pro­moting innovative funding mechanisms and voluntary arrangements, including the engagement of sport organizations, civil society, athletes and the private sector.

The United Nations human rights and sport for development and peace framework

"The practice of physical educa­tion and sport is a fundamental right for all."

—UNESCO International Charter

of Physical Education and Sport,

article 1

A rights-based understanding of sport and physical activity has been present since thefounding of the United Nations. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights set out a framework of rights and duties and recognized that "Everyone has the right to rest and lei­sure . . ." (article 24); "Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality . . ." (article 26); and "Everyone has the right to freely participate in the cultural life of the community . . ." (article 27).¹⁴

Sport and physical activity were first specifically recognized as a human right in the International Charter of Physical Education and Sport, adopted in 1978 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Charter states: "One of the essential conditions for the effec-

tive exercise of human rights is that everyone should be free to develop and preserve his or her physical, intel­lectual, and moral powers, and that access to physical education and sport should consequently be assured and guaranteed for all human beings."¹⁵

The Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted in 1989, also supports the notion of sport and physical educa­tion as a human right. In article 29 (1), States parties agreed that the educa­tion of the child shall be directed to "the development of the child's personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential".¹⁶

The adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006 marked a significant step forward in the policy framework on sport for people with disabilities. The Convention affirms the right of persons with disabilities to par­ticipate in mainstream and disability-specific sporting activities at all levels and to have equal access to training, resources, venues and services. It also affirms the right of children with dis­abilities to have equal access to recre­ation and sporting activities, including those in the school system.¹⁷ The spe­cific focus on equality between women and men and women with disabilities in this new Convention will benefit women and girls in sport.¹⁸

Over the past decade, there has been a growing understanding that access to and participation in sport and physical education is not only a right in itself, but can also be used to promote a number of important development goals through facilitating democratic principles, promoting leadership devel­opment, and encouraging tolerance and respect, as well as providing access to opportunities and social networks. All areas of development can be influenced by sport, including health, education, employment, social inclusion, political development and peace and security.

Sport has the potential to contrib­ute to the achievement of each of the United Nations Millennium Develop­ment Goals (MDGs) in unique and

creative ways. Women play an integral role in the achievement of every MDG, and every MDG is vital to gender equal­ity and women's empowerment. In 2002, the Secretary-General con­vened the United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace to encourage a more coher­ent approach to the use of sport-related initiatives in the pursuit of development goals, particularly at the community

level, and to promote the use of sport as a recognized tool in development. The Task Force report Sport as a tool for development and peace: Towards achieving the United Nations Millen­nium Development Goals provides an overview of the growing role that sport activities play in many United Nations policies and programmes and summa­rizes the lessons learned. The report concludes that sport programmes must

Inequalities and discrimination: constraining women in sport

The positive outcomes of sport for gender equality and women's empow­erment are constrained by gender-based discrimination in all areas and at all levels of sport and physical activity, fuelled by continuing stereotypes of women's physical abilities and social roles. Women are frequently segre­gated involuntarily into different types of sports, events and competitions specifically targeted to women. Wom­en's access to positions of leadership and decision-making is constrained from the local level to the international level. The value placed on women's sport is often lower, resulting in inad­equate resources and unequal wages and prizes. In the media, women's sport is not only marginalized but also often presented in a different style that reflects and reinforces gender stereotypes. Violence against women, exploitation and harassment in sport are manifestations of the perceptions of men's dominance, physical strength and power, which are traditionally por­trayed in male sport.

A number of critical elements have been identified for challenging gender discrimination and unequal gender relations, and establishing an enabling environment for gender equality and the empowerment of women, in many different areas, including women and sport. They include improving wom­en's capabilities, through education and health; increasing their access to and control over opportunities and resources, such as employment and economic assets; enhancing their agency and leadership roles; protect­ing and promoting their human rights; and ensuring their security, including freedom from violence.

The role of men and boys in chal­lenging and changing unequal power relations is critical. In recent years, a stronger focus has developed on the positive role men and boys can and do play in promoting women's empower-

ment in many different areas, including in the home, the community and the labour market. The current dominance of men in the world of sport makes their involvement and contributions to achieving gender equality in this area critical.

This publication explores the power of sport and physical education to advance gender equality and the empower­ment of women and girls. It examines persistent inequalities and challenges to equal participation and benefits for women and girls, as well as ways to address them. Examples of good practices are provided in all areas. The report outlines recommendations for action in the areas of research, policy and operational activities.

The benefits of women's participation for sport and society

In addition to benefits for women and girls themselves, women's increased involvement can promote positive development in sport by providing alter­native norms, values, attitudes, know­ledge, capabilities and experiences. The contributions of women, particu­larly in leadership positions, can bring diversity and alternative approaches and expand the talent base in areas such as management, coaching and sport journalism.

The participation of women and girls in sport challenges gender stereo­types and discrimination, and can therefore be a vehicle to promote gen­der equality and the empowerment of women and girls. In particular, women in sport leadership can shape attitudes towards women's capabilities as lead­ers and decision-makers, especially in traditional male domains. Women's involvement in sport can make a sig­nificant contribution to public life and community development.

The benefits for women and girls of physical activity and sport

Although many of the clinical trials and epidemiological studies in health research have excluded women, the data available suggest that women derive many health benefits from an active lifestyle.³ The health benefits of women's participation in physical activ­ity and sport are now well established. Participation in sport and physical activ­ity can prevent a myriad of noncom-municable diseases which account for over 60 per cent of global deaths, 66 per cent of which occur in develop­ing countries.⁴ For girls, it can have a positive impact on childhood health, as well as reduce the risk of chronic dis­eases in later life.

For older women, it can contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular dis­eases, which account for one third of deaths among women around the world and half of all deaths among women over 50 in developing countries.⁵ Physi­cal activity also helps to reduce the effects of osteoporosis, which women

have a higher risk of developing than men.⁶ Participation in physical activity aids in the prevention and/or treatment of other chronic and degenerative dis­eases associated with aging, such as type-2 diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, osteoporosis and cardiovascular abnor­malities. It also helps in the manage­ment of weight and contributes to the formation and maintenance of healthy bones, muscles and joints. Physical activity can reduce the incidence of falls among older women.

An important role of physical activ­ity in the life of older women lies in prolonging independence. Much of the physical decline that was presumed an inevitable consequence of aging is now thought to be the result of inactivity. While no one can guarantee that exer­cise will prolong life, it can enhance the quality of life for older women who value their independence.⁷

The benefits for women and girls with disabilities are also well estab­lished. It has been noted that sport provides a double benefit to women with disabilities by providing affirma­tions of self-empowerment at both personal and collective levels.⁸ Apart from enhancing health, wellness and quality of life, participation in physical activity and sport develops skills such as teamwork, goal-setting, the pursuit of excellence in performance and other achievement-oriented behaviours that women and girls with disabilities may not be exposed to in other contexts.⁹

Participation in sport and physical activity can also facilitate good mental health for women of all ages, includ­ing the management of mental disor­ders such as Alzheimer's disease.¹⁰ It can promote psychological well-being through building self-esteem, confi­dence and social integration, as well as help reduce stress, anxiety, loneli­ness and depression. This is particu­larly important as rates of depression among women are almost double those of men in both developed and developing countries.¹¹ Adolescent girls in particular are vulnerable to anxi­ety and depressive disorders and are significantly more likely than boys to

have seriously considered suicide by the age of 15.¹²

In addition to improvements in health, women and girls stand to gain specific social benefits from partici­pation in sport and physical activity. Sport provides women and girls with an alternative avenue for participation in the social and cultural life of their communities and promotes enjoyment of freedom of expression, interper­sonal networks, new opportunities and increased self-esteem. It also expands opportunities for education and for the development of a range of essential life skills, including communication, leader­ship, teamwork and negotiation.

Inactive adults can rapidly improve their health and well-being by becom­ing moderately active on a regular basis. Physical activity need not be strenuous to achieve health benefits and it is never too late to gain benefits.¹³

Women, gender equality and sport

Introduction

"Bicycling has done more to emancipate women than any one thing in the world"

—Susan B. Anthony, suffragist, 1896

Women's participation in sport has a long history. It is a history marked by division and discrimination but also one filled with major accomplishments by female athletes and important advances for gender equality and the empower­ment of women and girls.

Among the many remarkable achievements are those of Helene Madison of the United States of America, the first woman to swim the 100-yard freestyle in one minute at the 1932 Olympics; Maria-Teresa de Filippis of Italy, the first woman to compete in a European Grand Prix auto race in 1958; Nawal El Moutawakel of Morocco, the first woman from an Islamic nation to win an Olympic medal for the 400-metre hurdles at the 1984 Olympics; and Tegla Loroupe of Kenya, who in 1994 became the first African woman to win a major marathon.¹ Women have taken up top leadership positions in sport, such as Presidents and Secretaries-General of National Olympic Committees. More and more women have also taken up employment opportunities in all areas of sport, including as coaches, manag­ers, officials and sport journalists.

These achievements were made in the face of numerous barriers based on gender discrimination. Women were often perceived as being too weak for sport, particularly endurance sports, such as marathons, weightlifting and cycling, and it was often argued in the

past that sport was harmful to wom­en's health, particularly their repro­ductive health. In 1896, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the modern Olympics, stated: "No matter how toughened a sportswoman may be, her organism is not cut out to sustain certain shocks."² Such stereotypes fuelled gender-based discrimination in physical education and in recreational and competitive sport, sporting organi­zations and sport media.

Training and Overuse Injuries

UllG of the hazards of physical training is becoming injured. Sustaining either a sudden injury or an overuse injury can mean loss of work days, forced rest, and pain for a period of days to weeks. The goal of this chapter is not to have you treat your own injuries, but rather to be informed so that you will seek appropriate help when needed. Central to rapid recovery from training-related injuries is a step-wise reconditioning program which starts immediately after the injury. Such programs are designed to arrest the inflammatory process, promote healing and accelerate the return to full duty.

Injuries: Treatment and Prevention

A variety of injuries can occur during physical training. Table 13-1 has a brief description of acute and overuse injuries, as well as their treatment and prevention. Both sudden-onset and recurring injuries can result in inflammation (localized warmth, swelling, redness and pain). If left unchecked the inflammatory response rapidly leads to:

♦ Tissue swelling. ♦ Stiffness.

♦ Loss of normal function. ♦ Weakness.

♦ Decreased range of motion of the joint.

Table 13-1. Injuries, Treatments, and Prevention

Injury	Treatment	Prevention
Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness - Muscle pain occurring in deconditioned muscle 12-72+ hours after training.	Ice, stretch, warm-up. Do not use NSAIDs.	Resolves as muscle adapts to training. Slowly increase training intensity.
Contusions - Swelling and bleeding (bruising) in the muscle, tendon, or bone due to a direct blow.	Ice	Wear protective gear.
Muscle Cramp - Muscle pain caused by prolonged activity, high heat or humidity, dehydration, and poor conditioning.	Rehydrate (Chapter 2), stretch, massage with ice.	Allow time to adjust to training and climate; drink frequently.
True Fractures - Break or chip in the bone.	Seek medical help.	Use protective gear; recondition.
Stress Fractures - Pain and weakening of the bone caused by excessive stress and use.	Seek medical help.	Reduce high-impact activities, cross-train, use proper gear, slowly increase training.
Sprains - Acute or overuse injury to ligaments (connective tissue that joins bone to bone).	RICE.* Seek medical help.	Follow medical advise; slowly increase training intensity, use proper gear.
Strains, Tendonitis - Acute or overuse injury to muscle or tendons (connective tissue that joins muscle to bone).	RICE. Seek medical help.	See "Sprains."

Heat Injuries (cramp, exhaustion, heat stroke) - Painful muscle contractions, nausea, fatigue, fever, or dizziness from dehydration and electrolyte depletion; fevers >104°F can damage vital organs and result in death.

Place person in a cool location and rehydrate. Seek medical help.

Acclimate to climate, avoid exercise in extreme heat, avoid substances that cause dehydration (Chapter 12), stay well hydrated (Chapter 2).

Cold Injuries (hypothermia, frost bite, trench foot) - Body temperature <95°F causing shivers, slurred speech, clumsiness, and freezing of exposed body parts.

Gently place the person in dry blankets with another warm person.

Wear proper gear, stay dry, avoid exercise in extreme cold, stay well hydrated (Chapter 2).

The treatment of any injury should focus on controlling the inflammation and allowing full joint range of motion for a rapid return to daily activities. To accelerate healing, you must first decrease the inflammatory process. Treatment steps to achieve this include:

RICE = Rest + Ice + Compression + Elevation

♦ Rest - partial or no weight-bearing of the extremity,
using crutches for locomotion. "Relative Rest" means
decreasing activities that cause pain and replacing
them with activities that are pain-free.

♦ Ice - as soon as possible apply ice, wrapped in a bag
or towel, to the injured area. Ice for 20 minutes every
two hours on the first day, then 3 times a day until
the swelling has decreased. To prevent nerve
damage, do not ice for longer than 20 minutes at a
time. Never apply ice directly to the skin or to an
open wound!

♦ Compression - wrap the injury for periods of 2-4 hours. Never
sleep with a compression wrap unless medically advised.

♦ Elevation - place the injury above the level of the heart,
allowing gravity to reduce the swelling.

Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

In addition to RICE, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are often used to decrease the symptoms due to inflammation and fever associated with injury. Although NSAIDs are usually available over-the-counter, these medications should not be taken lightly. In the case of an acute injury which involves bleeding, bruising, or swelling, NSAIDs should not be started until after the bleeding has stopped (may take days) and the swelling has stabilized. Some side-effects of NSAIDs include:

♦ Nausea, heartburn, vomiting, ulcers, and bleeding.

♦ Increased blood pressure.

♦ Decreases the ability of blood to clot.

♦ Worsening of asthma.

♦ Potential kidney damage with long-term use.

Some of the most common NSAIDs are aspirin (Bayer, Aspirin, Ecotrin),

ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), and ketoprofen (Orudis). Remember: NSAIDs should not be used with alcohol. If you have stomach or gastrointestinal problems, check with your doctor for the appropriate pain reliever.

Vitamin and Mineral Needs

In addition to increased energy requirements, increased intakes of many of the vitamins and minerals may be useful for maintaining performance when working for prolonged periods in the cold. Vitamin and mineral recommendations have been developed to account for possible increased requirements based on intake data from field studies, urinary excretion of nutrients, and other measures of "nutrient status". Table 12-2 presents the suggested additional amount of some nutrients that may be needed when working in the cold. See Chapter 2, Table 2-2 and Table 2-3 for a list of food sources for these nutrients. In most cases, if you meet your energy requirements by eating all ration components, you should be meeting your vitamin and mineral needs.

Table 12-2. Suggested Additional Intakes of Micronutrients During Cold Weather Training

Nutrient

Suggested Increase*

Nutrient

Suggested Increase

Vitamin B₁ (Thiamin) 3 mg

Vitamin B₂ (Riboflavin) 2 mg

Vitamin B₃ (Niacin) 5 mg

Pantothenic Acid 5 mg

Folic Acid 200 µg
Vitamin B₁₂ 1 µg

Magnesium 200 mg

Zinc 5 mg

Adapted from Reynolds RD. (1995) Effects of Cold and Altitude on Vitamin and Mineral Requirements. In: Marriot BM (Ed). Nutrient Requirements for Work in Cold and High Altitude Environments. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. *Amounts in addition to the RDA (see Chapter 2).

Tips for Maintaining Performance in a Cold Environment

♦ Check weather conditions, dress appropriately, and avoid profuse
sweating.

♦ Allow for a longer warm-up.

♦ Replenish CHO and electrolyte losses.

♦ Drink plenty of fluids and try to avoid substances that cause
dehydration (see page 93 and Table 12-1).

♦ Be aware of the signs of cold injury (see Chapter 13).

♦ Eat snow only after melting and purifying it.

Altitude

Ascent to altitude can cause a variety of physiologic disturbances due to the drops in temperature and humidity, and the lack of oxygen. Some major concerns are weight loss, disturbances in digestion, and vitamin, mineral and fluid needs.

Physical performance can suffer dramatically with changes in altitude. The lower oxygen concentrations at altitude can reduce aerobic capacity by 1-2% every 100 meters (328 feet) above 1,500 meters (4,918 feet). Many adaptations occur during extended exposure to high altitudes including:

♦ Increased number of oxygen-carrying proteins in the blood
(hemoglobin) and muscle.

♦ Increased density of blood vessels to and within the muscle.

♦ Increased rate of respiration.

Adequate nutrition can play a crucial role in maintaining performance.

Energy Needs

Energy requirements are 15-50% greater than at sea level

Virtually all persons who go to altitude experience weight loss and loss of lean body mass. At altitudes below 5,000 m weight loss can be prevented by increased caloric intake; whereas above 5,000 m, a 5-10% weight loss is inevitable. Some reasons for weight loss at high-altitude are:

♦ Energy requirements are 15-50% greater than at sea level.

♦ Decreased appetite and sense of taste.

♦ Loss of body water from increased breathing rate and dry air.

♦ Impaired absorption of nutrients.

♦ Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) - symptoms include headache,
nausea, vomiting, fatigue and poor appetite.

Worksheet 12-3. Calculate Your Energy Requirements at Altitude

Your Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) =____________ kcal/day

(see Chapter 1)

A 50% increase in energy requirements equals:

_________ EER x 0.50 =__________ kcal/day

Your total energy requirement equals:

__________ EER +________ 50% increase=________ kcal/day

У

A high-CHO diet (60% of total daily kcals) is preferred at altitude because it restores glycogen, requires less oxygen to metabolize than a high-fat diet, and can blunt or delay the severity of AMS symptoms.

Vitamin and Mineral Needs

Vitamin and mineral needs are likely to increase at altitude. In particular, the increased metabolic rate and the lack of oxygen can increase the production of harmful free radicals. These free radicals can slow blood circulation and impair physical performance. Preliminary findings in men indicate that taking 400 IU per day of vitamin E, an antioxidant, at high altitude reduces free radical production and maintains aerobic energy production. Increased amounts of many other nutrients should be considered, especially since food intake usually decreases (see Table 12-2).

Tips for Maintaining Performance at Altitudes

♦ Plan on decreased physical performance the first few weeks.

♦ Drink plenty of fluids. Fluid requirements may be as high as 4.25
quarts, or more, each day.

♦ Listen to your body, be aware of any warning signs of illness or
symptoms of AMS and seek medical attention.

♦ Try to avoid substances that cause dehydration (Table 12-1).

As noted throughout this chapter, meeting energy and fluid requirements are vital for maintaining physical performance in adverse environmental conditions. Being physically fit and eating a healthy diet prior to deployment will greatly improve your acclimation and adaptation to the new environment.

Hot Environments

How hot is too hot? Heat advisories are

announced when a wet bulb-globe

temperature (WB-GT) is over 87° F (30.5°

C) or when temperature and humidity are

over 85° F and 60%, respectively. Under

these conditions exercise should be

performed indoors or undertaken with

caution. Any time you perform physical activities in the heat, you will lose a lot of water and electrolytes through sweat. Only the sweat that evaporates effectively cools the body; sweat that "drips" provides little cooling effect. As you adapt to the heat, you will start producing more dilute sweat (less salty) to conserve electrolytes. Factors that can limit "effective cooling" include high humidity, impermeable clothing, and skin conditions, such as sunburns or rashes.

Energy Needs

Although appetites may be suppressed in the hot weather, especially during the first few days after arriving, adequate caloric intake is very important. Inadequate food intake will lead to weight loss which can impair both physical and mental performance. When you do the same task in a hot environment, energy requirements are increased due to the increased work of maintaining a normal body temperature. When living and working in temperatures ranging from 86° to 104°F (30° to 40°C), kcal intakes should be increased by 10%, unless your activity level decreases accordingly.

If your activity level decreases, you do not need extra kcals!

 

Worksheet 12-1. Calculate Your Energy Requirements for a Hot Environment

^ л

Your Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) =_________________ kcal/day.

(from Worksheet 1 -2)

A 10% increase in energy requirements equals:

_________ EER x 0.10 =_________ kcal/day.

Your total energy requirement equals:

__________ EER +________ 10% increase=________ kcal/day.

Tips for Maintaining Performance in a Hot Environment

♦ Prepare by maximizing aerobic fitness before your exposure.

♦ Plan your workouts to avoid the heat of the day.

♦ Plan for decreased physical performance the first two weeks.

♦ Drink plenty of fluids and eat enough kcals.

♦ Be aware of any symptoms that may predispose you to
dehydration (diarrhea, vomiting, fever).

♦ Be aware of the warning signs of heat illness. Stop if signs or
symptoms of heat injury become apparent (See Chapter 13).

♦ Avoid substances that can lead to dehydration or heat injuries.

Table 12-1. Substances that Can Cause Dehydration

Caffeine Alcohol Decongestants

Antihistamines Atropine and other anticholenergics

Check with the medical department for other substances that may affect fluid balance.

Cold Environments

What is a cold environment? It is considered cold if the air temperature is below 15° F and the wind speed is greater than 25 m.p.h, or the water temperature is below 64°F. Cold wind and cold water accelerate heat loss by replacing the warm layer of air or water surrounding the body with colder air or water.

The body responds to cold by constricting (tightening) blood vessels to conserve heat and by shivering to generate heat and guard against hypothermia. There is increased urination and increased energy metabolism in cold environments, both on land and in water.

Energy Needs

Many studies have shown that soldiers tend to progressively lose weight when conducting field exercises in the cold for two to three weeks. Because significant weight loss can result in fatigue and performance decrements, energy intake must increase to meet the increased energy demands. Energy requirements can increase by 25 to 50% because of the increased work associated with performing physical tasks in the cold and the kcal expenditure due to shivering. Factors that increase energy requirements in the cold include:

♦ Increased basal metabolic rate (BMR, see page 3).

♦ Shivering.

♦ Working in cold weather gear.

To meet energy needs consume a diet that is high in CHO (roughly 60% of your total daily kcals). This will replace glycogen stores (page 7) that are being used to maintain body temperature. Eat frequent high-CHO snacks to help meet your kcal requirements. Keep fat intakes under 30% of your total daily kcals since high-fat diets may cause stomach upset. Keep protein intakes at 10% of your total daily kcals and avoid protein and amino acid supplements because high-protein intakes increase water losses.

Worksheet 12-2. Calculate Your Energy Requirements for a Cold Environment

Your Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) =______________ kcal/day.

(from Worksheet 1 -2)

A 25% increase in energy requirements equals:

_________ EER x 0.25 =__________ kcal/day.

Your total energy requirement equals:

__________ EER +________ 25% increase=_______ kcal/day.

e.g., If your EER is 3,000 kcals/day then in a cold environment your energy needs would increase by 3,000 kcals x 0.25 = 750 kcals/day. Your total daily energy requirement would be 3,000 kcals + 750 kcals = 3,750 kcals/day.

Deployment and Altered Climates

Adapting to a

new environment, such as

extreme changes in climate

or altitude, imposes

considerable demands on

■

the body. This adaptation,

or acclimation, occurs

gradually, allowing the

individual to better tolerate and perform in that new

environment. Thus, acclimation is the gradual change

the body undergoes in order to function more efficiently

in a new environment.

Acclimating to New E n vir onments

Adapting to a new environment can take one to three weeks. During this time, endurance activities become more difficult and onset of fatigue occurs sooner. If environmental conditions permit, gradually increase the intensity of exercise until you reach your desired training intensity. Having a good aerobic fitness base will accelerate your acclimation to new environments. Factors that negatively affect acclimation include:

♦ Dehydration.

♦ Drinking alcohol.

♦ Cessation of physical activity.

♦ Electrolyte depletion.

♦ Inadequate energy intake.

♦ Illness.

♦ Infection.

♦ Injury.

♦ Loss of sleep.

General Nutrition Issues

Maintaining or improving health and fitness is more challenging in adverse conditions such as extreme heat, cold, or altitudes. Even highly, physically fit individuals can be quickly overcome by "environmental exposure" if proper preparation is overlooked or if symptoms of impending illness are ignored. The adaptation of the body to adverse environments increases energy expenditure and water losses. Furthermore, dehydration results in a loss of appetite. If energy and fluid needs are not met, then performance will be impaired. General suggestions for meeting increased energy and fluid requirements are provided below. Issues relevant to a particular environment are provided later.

Maintaining Energy Balance

♦ Eat a high-CHO diet to meet increased kcal needs,
as CHO are more readily absorbed and better
tolerated than fats or proteins.

♦ Avoid fatty foods which may not be well tolerated.

♦ Avoid high-protein intakes which will increase water loss and can
lead to dehydration. (See Chapter 2 page 9.)

♦ Eat small frequent meals.

♦ When eating field rations, eat the entrees as well as the other
food and beverage items provided in the pack.

♦ Drink a high-CHO beverage to increase your kcal intake if you
are having difficulty eating enough solid foods to meet your
energy needs.

Maintaining Fluid Balance q

Maintaining fluid balance is crucial to avoid dehydration, as stated ^^=' in Chapter 2 on page 17. Dehydration can limit performance and severe dehydration can be life-threatening. Tips for maintaining fluid balance include:

♦ Monitor hydration status by the frequency and color of your
urine. Infrequent and dark yellow urine suggests dehydration.

♦ When possible, monitor fluid status by weighing yourself prior to
and after prolonged physical activities. For every pound of weight
lost due to water losses, drink 2 cups (0.45 L or 16 oz.) of water.

♦ Thirst is not a good indicator of fluid status. Drink fluids
regularly throughout the day. When working in the heat, do not
drink more than 6 cups of fluid an hour.

♦ Avoid alcoholic beverages as alcohol increases fluid losses.

♦ Reduce caffeine consumption as caffeine increases fluid losses.

♦ Avoid salty foods as salt increases fluid needs.

♦ Drink CHO/electrolytes beverages during prolonged physical
activity or on extended missions (Chapter 11, page 90).

Nutrition for Exercise Recovery

Within 30 minutes of completing an extended or intense exercise session, consume at least 50 grams of CHO (roughly 200 kcals). Also, continue to snack on high-CHO foods for up to six hours. This will help restore your muscle glycogen for the next exercise session. Some foods and servings sizes that contain roughly 50 grams of CHO are:

♦ Bagel with jam

♦ Baked potato with skin

♦ Cooked sweet corn, 1.5 cups

♦ Cornflakes, 2.5 cups

♦ Watermelon, 4.5 cups

♦ Raisins, 0.4 cup

♦ Shredded wheat cereal, 1.4 cups

♦ Baked Beans, 1 cup

♦ Bananas (2)

♦ Cooked oatmeal, 2 cups

♦ Cooked Rice, 1 cup

♦ Orange juice, 2 cups

For more information on the CHO content of foods, check food labels (Figure 3-2), check the USDA website at http://www.usda.gov, or ask a dietitian.

Vitamin and Mineral Needs

Any increased vitamin and mineral needs can be met by eating according to the Food Guide Pyramid (Chapter 3, Figure 3-1). Particularly, increase the number of fruits and vegetables you eat as these foods are good sources of many vitamins and minerals, as well as antioxidants. (See Chapter 3 page 22, Table 2-2, Table 2-3, and Appendix A.) These antioxidants may protect you from environmental stressors and may accelerate your recovery from exhaustive exercise. Fresh fruits and vegetables also provide potassium, which is lost during prolonged strenuous exercise (see Table 2-3).

Fluid Needs

Drinking fluids at regular intervals and eating foods with a high water content (i.e., fresh fruits) are important for maintaining hydration and fluid status during training. See Chapter 2 for more information on fluid balance.

Getting Enough Fluids

♦ Drink 16 oz. (2 cups) of fluid two hours before
starting exercise.

♦ Drink 3 to 4 oz. (1/2 cup) of fluid every 15-20 minutes during
exercise.

♦ Weigh yourself before and after exercise to determine how much
fluid you lost. Drink 16 oz. of fluid for every pound of weight lost.

♦ Do not rely on thirst as an indicator of fluid needs because it is
not adequate. Once you feel thirsty you are already dehydrated.

♦ Drink water when exercising less than 60 minutes. Drink a
sports drink (5% to 8% CHO with electrolytes) when exercising
longer than 60 minutes.

♦ Monitor your urine: urine should be a pale yellow (unless you
take vitamin B supplements) and you should be urinating
frequently.

What to Drink

Many beverages can replenish lost fluids, so select a beverage that:

♦ Tastes good.

♦ Does not cause gastrointestinal or stomach discomfort.

♦ Is rapidly absorbed from your gut, especially when exercising.

♦ Contains electrolytes (see Glossary) and CHO (5% to 8%) when
performing prolonged or strenuous exercise.

♦ Rehydrate with a non-caffeinated, non-carbonated, non-alcoholic
beverage.

Although less common than dehydration, untreated overhydration can be life threatening. It is seen when plain water is used to replace fluid losses during prolonged (greater than 3 hours) strenuous exercise. Remember, water and electrolytes are lost during sweating, so both need to be replaced in this situation. Overhydration decreases the concentration of electrolytes in the body, upsets metabolism and other bodily functions, and is just as harmful as dehydration. Prevent overhydration by drinking a beverage that contains electrolytes (such as a sport drink) or by eating a light snack (e.g., oranges) with your water. Between exercise sessions, electrolytes lost through sweating can be easily replenished by eating well-balanced meals and snacks (Chapter 3).

Figure 11-1. CHO Loading for Endurance Events

CHO loading requires that you reduce your training sessions and increase your CHO intake the week prior to an event. As shown to the left, five to six days before the event train no more than 40 minutes (solid line). CHO intake (dotted line) should be approximately 50% of your total energy intake. Two to three days before the event train no more than 20 minutes a day and increase CHO intake to 70% of your total energy intake. Rest the day before the event and keep CHO intake at 70%.

CHO for Strength Training

CHO are required for strength training because the exercises rely on muscle glycogen stores for energy. The recommended CHO intake is:

55-60% of your total daily caloric intake.

This is slightly lower than the requirements for endurance activities (see Worksheet 11-1) because the total amount of energy expended is less. CHO loading is not recommended for strength training because it causes extra water to be stored in the muscle.

Protein Needs

Protein needs of strength athletes and endurance athletes are quite similar at:

0.6 - 0.8 grams of proteins per pound of body weight.

This corresponds roughly to 10-15% of your total daily kcals. It is highly likely that your diet provides adequate proteins since most Americans consume proteins in excess of their needs. Use Worksheet 11-2 or Worksheet 2-2 (Chapter 2) to determine your protein needs.

 

Worksheet 11-2. Calculate Your Protein Needs

_grams proteins.

Body Weight = 0.6 grams/lb x _

(Body weight)

_grams proteins.

0.8 grams/lb x

to

(Body weight) Your daily protein grams =

The High-Protein Myth

One of the most common myths is that eating high-protein diets and protein supplements leads to bigger muscles. Clearly, this is not the case! Muscle is only 20% proteins; the rest is water, minerals, lactic acid, and urea. (See Figure 11-2.) Moreover, excessive protein intakes, mostly from protein supplements, can cause:

♦ More waste production.

♦ Increased water needs.

♦ Greater demands on the liver and the kidneys.

♦ Imbalances in the essential amino acids.

♦ Diarrhea or abdominal cramps.

For these very reasons, avoid protein powder drinks that provide excessive amounts of proteins or selected amino acids. Although heavily advertised and endorsed by celebrities, you do not need protein supplements to build muscle. Supplements can be very expensive, dangerous to your health, and they are quite unnecessary. Spend your money on a variety of foods for a balanced diet that will sufficiently meet your protein needs. Exercise to gain muscle!

Figure 11-2. Components of Muscle

Muscle is:

20% proteins, 75% water, and 5% inorganic salts, urea, and lactate.

CHO for Endurance Training

 

The endurance capacity of an individual on a high-CHO diet is approximately 3 times greater than on a high-fat diet. When CHO intake is low, several days of rigorous training will result in a gradual depletion of muscle glycogen stores and eventually impair performance. The guidelines for CHO intake while training are:

60 - 65% of your total daily kcal intake.

Worksheet 11-1. Calculate Your Daily CHO Needs

		X	0.60	=	kcal from CHO per day.
Your EER*		X	0.65		kcal from CHO per day.
Your EER* You should	eat			to	kcals from CHO daily.

* Your estimated energy requirement (EER) was calculated in Chapter 1, Worksheet 1 -2. To calculate grams of CHO see Worksheet 2-1.

Keep a dietary log for a few days to see if your CHO intake is adequate.

CHO Loading/Glycogen Supercompensation

CHO Loading is a regimen that combines diet and exercise to "pack" more glycogen into muscle and liver (Figure 11-1). It is used by endurance athletes to optimize physical performance during prolonged endurance events. CHO loading causes temporary weight gain (2.7 grams of water are stored with every gram of glycogen). The extra weight may impair performance. CHO loading is unnecessary for individuals who eat according to

the dietary guidelines outlined in Chapter 3 and whose CHO intakes are within the range calculated in Worksheet 11-1.

Nutrition for Exercise

Y our physical performance is greatly influenced by regular conditioning and by following sound dietary practices. Both prolonged aerobic exercise and multiple bouts of high intensity exercise impose significant demands on energy and fluid balance. Failure to replace energy and fluids used during exercise can significantly impair performance in later activities.

The following recommendations are for an individual who regularly participates in at least 90 minutes of aerobic exercise each day or in multiple, strenuous bouts of exercise several times a week. This information does not apply if you exercise less than one hour per day.

Carbohydrate Needs

During heavy training you must increase your kcal intake, especially from carbohydrates (CHO), to meet your energy demands. Failure to do so may result in:

♦ Chronic muscular fatigue.

♦ A feeling of staleness.

♦ Weight and muscle mass loss.

♦ Poor sleep patterns.

Morale During Deployment

Although confined spaces can limit your Щь training options and make you feel less than I enthusiastic to train, you need to remain physically active. Stopping all physical training results in a rapid decline in muscle | strength and endurance, flexibility, and aerobic conditioning (see Chapter 4). One option to boost morale and increase participation in physical training during deployment is to create training competitions. Some ideas include:

♦ Mini-triathlons - Perform any three aerobic exercises back-to-
back for the best time. Honor the winner by engraving his/her
name on a plaque or give him/her a token that is symbolic of the
competition.

♦ Organize team competitions that coincide with major sporting
tournaments, such as the NFL playoffs or the NCAA Final Four
tournament. Assign each crew member to a team and organize
the teams into tournament-style playoffs. Record the time each
team member exercises. The team with the most total exercise
time wins the tournament.

Anyone can organize these types of competitions. Such events make exercising a social and morale boosting activity for all sailors during deployment.

Finally, you may feel that the biggest barrier to working out when deployed is time limitations. In actuality, it requires less time to maintain fitness levels than to increase fitness levels. Though not ideal, you can maintain your fitness level by working at your usual intensity fewer times per week and for shorter durations than what is required to improve your fitness level. A minimum of one strength session, which includes exercises for all the major muscle groups (1 set of 8-12 repetitions), and two 20-minute aerobic sessions, within your target heart rate zone, per week will allow you to maintain your current fitness level. Though this limited amount of training is not ideal for your overall fitness, it is much better than not performing any exercise at all. Remember, detraining occurs rapidly when all training is stopped (see Chapter 4).

Workout Design

The FITT principle guidelines described in Chapters 4, 5, 7, and 9 should be followed for each type of fitness training. Since space, equipment, and time are limiting factors during deployment, one of the most effective workouts for you to perform is circuit training (described in Chapter 7). The basics of this type of workout are:

♦ Total session is 30-60 minutes, divided into 30-60 second stations.

♦ Each station is a new exercise; alternate aerobic and strength
stations, and upper and lower body exercises.

♦ Perform aerobic exercises in your target heart rate zone.

♦ Perform strength exercises with proper form and use a resistance
that you can lift 10-12 times.

♦ Stretch after your workout. (See Chapter 9.)

Table 10-2. Circuit Training Workout

Station	Exercise	Time
	Warm-up	5 minutes
1	Wall Squat with Ball	60 sec
2	Push ups	60 sec
3	Jog in place	60 sec
4	Stair step/Jog	60 sec
5	Jumping Jacks	60 sec
	Check heart rate	10 sec
6	Lat Pulldown with Band	60 sec
7	Abdominal Crunches and Lower Back Extensions	60 sec (30 sec each)
8	Biceps curl and Triceps Extension with band	60 sec (30 sec each)
9	Jumping Jacks	60 sec
10	Stair Step/Jog	60 sec
11	Jog in place	60 sec
12	Jumping Jacks	60 sec
	Check heart rate	10 sec
	Repeat Stations 1-12, 2-4 times
	Cool Down	5 minutes
	Stretch	5-10 minutes
Note: One cycle of this circuit training workout has 7 minutes of aerobic	exercises and one set of
strength exercises for each of the major muscle groups.