Sport as a vehicle for gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls

". . . [M]y trainers taught me to believe in myself . . . I was inspired and learned determination and dis­cipline. Sports allow you to get to know yourself."

—Nawal El Moutawakel,

the first Olympic gold medallist

from Morocco (1984 Olympics

—hurdles)³⁹

The relationship between gender equality and sport is not solely about achieving equality in women's partici­pation and treatment within sports, but it is also about promoting "sport for gender equality", or harnessing the potential of sport for social empower­ment of women and girls. Sport offers a valuable channel to strengthen wom­en's and girls' capabilities and provide information on important social issues, such as health, HIV/AIDS and women's rights. Women's and girls' participation in sport can also challenge gender ster­eotypes and break down entrenched discriminatory attitudes and behav­iours. Myriam Lamare, a World Boxing

Association champion from France, has said that the punches she lands shake the foundations of society.⁴⁰

Empowering women and girls through sport

Sport can be an important tool for social empowerment through the skills and values learned, such as teamwork, negotiation, leadership, communica­tion and respect for others. The social benefits of participation in sport are thought to be especially important for girls, given that many girls, particularly in adolescence, have fewer oppor­tunities than boys for social interac­tion outside the home and beyond family structures.⁴¹ Women and girls acquire new interpersonal networks, develop a sense of identity and access new opportunities, allowing them to become more engaged in school and community life.⁴² Participation in sport also enables women and girls to enjoy freedom of expression and movement and increase their self-esteem and self-confidence.

It has also been argued that sport and physical education can serve as the basis for a sense of "positive embodi­ment". This concept goes beyond the idea of physical fitness and incorpo­rates psychological benefits and the

pursuit of active spiritual practices. The psychological benefits of physical activity, essential fora sense of positive embodiment, can be acquired through the enjoyment of the physical activity, self-chosen levels of competition, and the provision of social support from the family and the community.⁴³

The concept of positive embodiment implies that women and girls have the right and responsibility to create active, healthy lifestyles to sustain vitality in their lives. There are psychological, emotional and medical benefits to doing so, as well as significant broader

economic and social gains. The con­cept starts with traditional fitness and adds psychosocial wellness strategies and the pursuit of active self-care for body, mind and spirit. Positive embodi­ment requires a lifestyle incorporating self-assertion and self-care which is the basis of a vigorous and satisfying sense of one's own body.⁴⁴

Positive embodiment can be seen as a model of self-care that allows women to achieve a balance between caring for themselves and caring for others. Most women prioritize the needs of others before their own needs, a pattern that often leads to neglect of themselves. As a result, women deplete their resources of time and energy in the care of others. Self-care involves the creation of personal time and space for women and opportunities for posi­tive interaction of the mind, body and spirit. Adoption of the physical embodi­ment approach, with its critical con­cept of active self-care, would require complex changes in lifestyle for many women.⁴⁵

Sport can serve as a vehicle to improve women's and girls' leadership roles and participation in decision-making. The acquisition of valuable skills in management, negotiation and decision-making empowers women and girls to become leaders in all areas of community life, as well as in the household.

The Montreal Tool Kit—A Manual for Change

The Montreal Tool Kit was developed for the Third World Conference on Women and Sport as a reference manual containing 20 tools to help women activists working to increase women's participation in sports. The manual includes tools on advocacy and awareness-raising, such as "Creating an advocacy strategy" and "Non-sexist sport commentary for media"; tools for changing organizations, such as "Terms of reference for a Women and Sport Committee" and "Sample harassment policy"; tools for individual development, such as "Building a case for mentoring"; and other tools for action, such as "Measuring your success".

World Conference, held in May 2006 in Kumamoto, Japan,³⁰ concluded with the Kumamoto Commitment to Collab­oration, which expressed participants' commitment to building a collabora­tive network in order to realize gender equality in and through sport.³¹

Regional processes

Regional bodies also address gender equality issues in sport. For example, in 2005, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe passed rec­ommendation 1701 on discrimination against women and girls in sport. The recommendation calls on the Commit­tee of Ministers to promote women's sport and women's participation in sport; accord greater importance to school-based physical education for women and girls; conduct awareness-raising among officials in sport, edu­cation and health; support women's participation in top-level sport; ensure equality in terms of pay, prize money and bonuses; ensure that women play a greater role in ruling bodies of sports organizations; conduct an in-depth study of national sport policies; ensure collection of gender-specific statistics; and increase media coverage of women in sport.³² The recommen­dation also calls for the combating of sexual abuse in relation to sport, which follows on from the 2000 Council of Europe resolution on the prevention of sexual harassment and abuse of

women, young people and children in sport (3/2000).³³

In 2002, the African Sports Confed­eration of Disabled (ASCOD) estab­lished a policy on disabled women's and girls' participation in sport and rec­reation. The policy aims to increase the participation of women and girls at all levels of sport and recreation in order to achieve gender equality, and calls on the Confederation and its member nations to bear the duty of advising Ministers of Sport on ways to meet the targets set out in the policy.³⁴

In 2001, the first Asian Conference on Women and Sport, held in Osaka, Japan, led to the establishment of the Asian Working Group on Women and Sport (AWG). The Working Group developed the Asian Women and Sport Action Plan 2001, which sought to expand equal opportunities for women and men and girls and boys in Asia to participate fully in sport.³⁵ The sec­ond Asian Conference, held in Qatar in 2003, adopted the "Doha Confer­ence Resolutions", which encouraged all parties to actively support women and sport.³⁶ The "Yemen Challenge", adopted at the third Asian Conference in Yemen in 2005, emphasized the importance of continued promotion and development of women in sport in Asia and included a request for all Asian Governments and National Olympic Committees to formulate a national women and sport policy by

the 2006 Doha Asian Games, and to include therein a special chapter on women with disabilities.³⁷

The Commonwealth Games Federa­tion also promotes the role of women in sport as participants and as decision-makers. Regulation 6 of its March 2006 Constitution states that the Common­wealth Games retains its status as a leader in promoting gender equality, and that future programmes in sports will have a balanced participation and profile for males and females. Article 17 of the Constitution also states that both women and men shall contribute at least 20 per cent or two of the repre­sentatives on the Executive Board and on the Sports Committee and any other committees and commissions formed by the Executive Board.³⁸

The Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport

The Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport calls for:

• Equality in society and sport;

• Sport facilities that meet the needs of women;

• An increase in the number of women coaches, advisers and decision-
makers in sport;

• Education, training and development programmes that address gender
equality;

• Information and research on women and sport;

• Allocation of resources for sportswomen and women's programmes;
and

• Incorporation of the promotion of gender equality and sharing of good
practices into governmental and non-governmental policies and pro­
grammes on women and sport.

adopted at the Third IWG World Con­ference in Montreal, Canada, in 2002, which recognized that the path to real­izing these broader goals involves a

variety of actions, including information and advocacy campaigns and the inte­gration of sport into community devel­opment projects.²⁹ The Fourth IWG

Resolution of the Second International Olympic Committee World Conference on Women and Sport

The resolution, adopted in 2000, calls for a number of strategies and actions to be taken by the International Olympic Committee, Governments and international organizations, including the United Nations system, such as:

• Meeting the 20 per cent goal of women in decision-making by 2005;

• Increasing scholarships and training for women athletes, coaches and
other officials;

• Raising awareness about the positive influence of the Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women on the
development of physical activity and sport for women and girls;

• Urging the Commission on the Status of Women to recognize the impor­
tance of physical activity and sport to women's and girls' development
at all stages of their lives;

• Raising awareness about the importance of quality physical education;

• Developing strategies and educational material to support physical edu­
cation for girls;

• Implementing sexual harassment policies, including codes of conduct;
and

• Working with the media to ensure a more accurate projection of wom­
en's sport.

International processes

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) plays a central leadership role in the world of sport, and its policies set standards in international, regional and national sporting events and pro­cedures. In 1994, it requested that the Olympic Charter be amended to include an explicit reference to the

need for action on women and sport. This is reflected in the current Charter, adopted in 2004, which states that one of the roles of the Committee is to "encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures with a view to implement­ing the principle of equality of men and women."²⁷

In 1995, the International Olympic Committee established a Working Group on Women and Sport, which was elevated to the status of a Com­mission in 2004. The Women and Sport Commission, which meets once a year, monitors the participation of women in the Olympics as well as their represen­tation in decision-making. The Commis­sion organizes quadrennial IOC World Conferences on Women and Sport to assess progress made in women and sport within the Olympic Movement, define priority actions and increase the involvement of women.

The International Working Group on Women and Sport, an indepen­dent coordinating body of government organizations, aims to be a catalyst for the advancement and empowerment of women and sport globally. It was established in 1994 at the First World Conference on Women and Sport, held in Brighton, United Kingdom, organized by the British Sports Council and sup­ported by the International Olympic Committee. At this conference, the Brighton Declaration was adopted and endorsed by the 280 delegates from 82 countries representing Governments, NGOs, National Olympic Committees, international and national sport fed­erations, and educational and research institutions.

The Second International Working Group on Women and Sport World Conference on Women and Sport took place in Windhoek, Namibia, in 1998. The Windhoek Call for Action further developed the aims of the Brighton Declaration, calling for the promotion of sport as a means to realize broader goals in health, education and women's human rights.²⁸This idea was strength­ened in the Montreal Communiqué

Other international and regional policy frameworks

Other processes have also contributed to global and regional policy frame­works on women, gender equality and sport. International bodies that have been particularly active in developing such frameworks include the Interna­tional Council of Sport Science and Physical Education, the International Olympic Committee, the International Paralympic Committee and numerous groups and networks, such as the Inter­national Working Group on Women and Sport, WomenSport International and the International Association of Physi­cal Education for Women and Girls.

United Nations treaty bodies

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women provides binding obligations for States parties on eliminating dis­crimination against women and girls in the area of sports and physical educa­tion. Article 10 calls for States parties to take all appropriate measures to elimi­nate discrimination against women in order to ensure to them equal rights with men in the field of education, including ensuring the same opportuni­ties to participate actively in sports and physical education. Article 13 calls for

States parties to take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in other areas of eco­nomic and social life in order to ensure, on the basis of equality between women and men, the same rights, including the right to participate in recreational activities, sports and all aspects of cultural life.²⁵

The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has also reminded States parties, in its gen­eral recommendation No. 25 on tempo­rary special measures, that temporary special measures, such as positive action, preferential treatment or quota systems, should be implemented in the areas of sports, culture and recreation. The Committee further emphasized that, where necessary, such measures should be directed at women subjected to multiple discrimination, including rural women.²⁶

Sport and the Beijing Platform for Action

Under the critical area of concern on education, the Platform calls for Gov­ernments, educational authorities and other educational and academic insti­tutions to provide accessible recreational and sport facilities and establish and strengthen gender-sensitive programmes for girls and women of all ages in education and community institutions and support the advancement of women in all areas of athletics and physical activity, including coaching, training and administration, and as participants at the national, regional and international levels.

In relation to health, the Platform calls for Governments to create and support programmes in the education system, workplace and community to make opportunities to participate in sport, physical activity and recreation available to girls and women of all ages on the same basis as they are made available to men and boys.

In the critical area of concern on power and decision-making, the

Platform notes that the underrepresentation of women in decision-making positions in the areas of art, culture, sport, the media, education, religion and law have prevented women from having a significant impact on many key institutions.

In relation to the situation of the girl-child, the Platform calls for Govern­ments and international and non-governmental organizations to promote the full and equal participation of girls in extracurricular activities, such as sport, drama and cultural activities.

Source: United Nations (1995). Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, 4-15 September 1995. New York (United Nations publication. Sales No. 96.IV.13). Critical Area of Concern B, Education and training of women, Strategic Objective B.2, para. 83 (m). See the Critical Area of Concern C, Women and health, Strategic Objective C.2, para. 107 (f); Critical Area of Concern G, Women in power and decision-making, para. 183; and, Critical Area of Concern L, The girl-child, Strategic Objective L.4, para. 280 (d).

ognized the need for gender equality in sport and physical education. It called on Governments and regional and international organizations, including the United Nations system, to ensure equal opportunities for women and girls in cultural, recreational and sport activities, as well as in participation in athletics and physical activities at the national, regional and international lev­els, such as in access, training, compe­tition, remuneration and prizes.²³

The understanding that sport pro­grammes can be an important vehicle for promoting gender equality has con­tinued to advance, particularly since the establishment of the International Year of Sport and Physical Education. In 2006, the General Assembly, for the first time, specifically invited Member States to initiate sport programmes

to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women.24

United Nations intergovernmental processes

The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, provides important policy recommendations on women, gender equality and sport. The Platform calls for the provision of accessible rec­reational and sport facilities by educa­tional institutions, the establishment and strengthening of gender-sensitive programmes for girls and women of all ages in education and community institutions, and the creation and sup­port of programmes in the education system, workplace and community to make opportunities to participate in sport and physical activity available to girls and women of all ages, on the same basis as they are made available to men and boys.²¹

The Commission on the Status of Women, the principal global policymak-ing body on gender equality, addressed sport and physical activity in its review of progress made in the implementa­tion of the Beijing Platform for Action. In agreed conclusions 1999/17 (I) on women and health, the Commission called on Governments, the United Nations system and civil society to encourage women to practise regular sport and recreational activities, which have a positive impact on women's health, well-being and fitness through­out the whole life cycle, and ensure that women enjoy equal opportunities to practise sport, use sport facilities and take part in competitions.²²

The outcome of the five-year review of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action rec-

Policy/normative frameworks on women, gender equality and sport

"States parties shall take all appro­priate measures to eliminate discrim­ination against women in other areas of economic and social life in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of women and men, the same rights, in particular . . . [t]he rights to partici­pate in recreational activities, sports and all aspects of cultural life."

—Convention on the Elimination

of All Forms of Discrimination

against Women (article 13)

Within the established framework of human rights and sport for develop­ment and peace, a number of United Nations intergovernmental and treaty body processes, as well as other inter­national and regional processes, have specifically addressed some of the critical gender equality issues in sport and physical education. Global and regional policy/normative frameworks on women, gender equality and sport have been developed.

These policy/normative frameworks have laid the foundation for a just and equitable world of sport for women and men. They have also recognized the power of sport as a catalyst for social and economic development. Imple-

mentation of these commitments has begun in all regions, and has resulted in real and tangible progress for gen­der equality and the empowerment of women and girls. However, the imple­mentation of the frameworks continues to be constrained by gender-based dis­crimination in all areas and at all levels of sport and physical education.

Sport and the MDGs

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. Providing develop­ment opportunities will help fight poverty. The sport industry, as well as the organization of large sporting events, creates opportunities for employ­ment. Sport provides life skills essential for a productive life in society. The opportunity to acquire such skills is often more limited for women, making their access to sport of critical importance.

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education. Sport and physical edu­cation are an essential element of quality education. They promote posi­tive values and skills that have an immediate and lasting impact on young people. Sport activities and physical education generally make school more attractive and improve attendance.

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. Increas­ing access for women and girls to physical education and sport helps build confidence and promotes stronger social integration. Involving girls in sport activities alongside boys can help overcome prejudice that often contributes to social vulnerability of women and girls.

Goals 4 and 5: Reduce child mortality and improve maternal health. Sport can be an effective means to provide women with a healthy lifestyle as well as to convey important messages on a wide range of health issues.

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. Sport can help engage otherwise difficult-to-reach populations and provide positive role models delivering prevention messages. The most vulnerable popula­tions, including women and girls, are highly responsive to sport-targeted pro­grammes. Sport can also effectively assist in overcoming prejudice, stigma and discrimination.

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability. Sport is ideal for raising awareness about the need to preserve the environment. The interdepen-dency between the regular practice of outdoor sports and the protection of the environment is clear.

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development. Sport offers diverse opportunities for innovative partnerships for development and can be used as a tool to build and foster partnerships between developed and developing nations to work towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals.

Source: Adapted from International Year of Sport and Physical Education (2005). A year of sports. Available from http://www.un.org/sport2005/a_year/ mill_goals.html

 

be based on the "sport for all" model, ensuring that all groups are given the opportunity to participate, particularly those who gain additional benefits, such as women, persons with disabili­ties and young people.¹⁹

In 2004, the General Assembly adopted resolution 58/5, "Sport as a means to promote education, health, development and peace", which invited Governments, the United Nations, the specialized agencies, where appro­priate, and sport-related institutions to work collectively so that sport and physical education could present opportunities for solidarity and coop­eration, in order to promote a culture of peace and social and gender equal­ity and to advocate dialogue and har­mony. It recognized the power of sport to contribute to human development and proclaimed the year 2005 as the International Year of Sport and Physical Education.

The International Year aimed to facilitate better knowledge-sharing among different key stakeholders, raise awareness and create the right condi­tions for the implementation of more sport-based human development pro­grammes. It provided a unique oppor­tunity to use the power of sport to mo­bilize individuals, organizations and local communities, drawing together diverse groups in a positive and supportive environment. During the International Year, over 100 international initiatives and thousands of local projects were undertaken by Governments, the United Nations system, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the private sector. An unprecedented amount of media attention was accorded to the issue of sport and physical educa­tion. The notion of "sport for all" was emphasized and the principle of non-discrimination was upheld as a funda­mental human right.

In 2006, Secretary-General Kofi Annan presented the United Nations Action Plan on Sport for Development and Peace, which was included in his report on "Sport for Development and Peace: the way forward".²⁰ The

action plan serves as an initial road map for a three-year period to expand and strengthen partnerships, sport for development and peace programmes and projects, as well as advocacy and communications activities. The plan calls for the development of a global framework to strengthen a common vision, define priorities and further raise awareness to promote and mainstream easily replicable sport for development and peace policies. It also calls for pro­moting innovative funding mechanisms and voluntary arrangements, including the engagement of sport organizations, civil society, athletes and the private sector.

The United Nations human rights and sport for development and peace framework

"The practice of physical educa­tion and sport is a fundamental right for all."

—UNESCO International Charter

of Physical Education and Sport,

article 1

A rights-based understanding of sport and physical activity has been present since thefounding of the United Nations. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights set out a framework of rights and duties and recognized that "Everyone has the right to rest and lei­sure . . ." (article 24); "Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality . . ." (article 26); and "Everyone has the right to freely participate in the cultural life of the community . . ." (article 27).¹⁴

Sport and physical activity were first specifically recognized as a human right in the International Charter of Physical Education and Sport, adopted in 1978 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Charter states: "One of the essential conditions for the effec-

tive exercise of human rights is that everyone should be free to develop and preserve his or her physical, intel­lectual, and moral powers, and that access to physical education and sport should consequently be assured and guaranteed for all human beings."¹⁵

The Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted in 1989, also supports the notion of sport and physical educa­tion as a human right. In article 29 (1), States parties agreed that the educa­tion of the child shall be directed to "the development of the child's personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential".¹⁶

The adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006 marked a significant step forward in the policy framework on sport for people with disabilities. The Convention affirms the right of persons with disabilities to par­ticipate in mainstream and disability-specific sporting activities at all levels and to have equal access to training, resources, venues and services. It also affirms the right of children with dis­abilities to have equal access to recre­ation and sporting activities, including those in the school system.¹⁷ The spe­cific focus on equality between women and men and women with disabilities in this new Convention will benefit women and girls in sport.¹⁸

Over the past decade, there has been a growing understanding that access to and participation in sport and physical education is not only a right in itself, but can also be used to promote a number of important development goals through facilitating democratic principles, promoting leadership devel­opment, and encouraging tolerance and respect, as well as providing access to opportunities and social networks. All areas of development can be influenced by sport, including health, education, employment, social inclusion, political development and peace and security.

Sport has the potential to contrib­ute to the achievement of each of the United Nations Millennium Develop­ment Goals (MDGs) in unique and

creative ways. Women play an integral role in the achievement of every MDG, and every MDG is vital to gender equal­ity and women's empowerment. In 2002, the Secretary-General con­vened the United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace to encourage a more coher­ent approach to the use of sport-related initiatives in the pursuit of development goals, particularly at the community

level, and to promote the use of sport as a recognized tool in development. The Task Force report Sport as a tool for development and peace: Towards achieving the United Nations Millen­nium Development Goals provides an overview of the growing role that sport activities play in many United Nations policies and programmes and summa­rizes the lessons learned. The report concludes that sport programmes must

Inequalities and discrimination: constraining women in sport

The positive outcomes of sport for gender equality and women's empow­erment are constrained by gender-based discrimination in all areas and at all levels of sport and physical activity, fuelled by continuing stereotypes of women's physical abilities and social roles. Women are frequently segre­gated involuntarily into different types of sports, events and competitions specifically targeted to women. Wom­en's access to positions of leadership and decision-making is constrained from the local level to the international level. The value placed on women's sport is often lower, resulting in inad­equate resources and unequal wages and prizes. In the media, women's sport is not only marginalized but also often presented in a different style that reflects and reinforces gender stereotypes. Violence against women, exploitation and harassment in sport are manifestations of the perceptions of men's dominance, physical strength and power, which are traditionally por­trayed in male sport.

A number of critical elements have been identified for challenging gender discrimination and unequal gender relations, and establishing an enabling environment for gender equality and the empowerment of women, in many different areas, including women and sport. They include improving wom­en's capabilities, through education and health; increasing their access to and control over opportunities and resources, such as employment and economic assets; enhancing their agency and leadership roles; protect­ing and promoting their human rights; and ensuring their security, including freedom from violence.

The role of men and boys in chal­lenging and changing unequal power relations is critical. In recent years, a stronger focus has developed on the positive role men and boys can and do play in promoting women's empower-

ment in many different areas, including in the home, the community and the labour market. The current dominance of men in the world of sport makes their involvement and contributions to achieving gender equality in this area critical.

This publication explores the power of sport and physical education to advance gender equality and the empower­ment of women and girls. It examines persistent inequalities and challenges to equal participation and benefits for women and girls, as well as ways to address them. Examples of good practices are provided in all areas. The report outlines recommendations for action in the areas of research, policy and operational activities.

The benefits of women's participation for sport and society

In addition to benefits for women and girls themselves, women's increased involvement can promote positive development in sport by providing alter­native norms, values, attitudes, know­ledge, capabilities and experiences. The contributions of women, particu­larly in leadership positions, can bring diversity and alternative approaches and expand the talent base in areas such as management, coaching and sport journalism.

The participation of women and girls in sport challenges gender stereo­types and discrimination, and can therefore be a vehicle to promote gen­der equality and the empowerment of women and girls. In particular, women in sport leadership can shape attitudes towards women's capabilities as lead­ers and decision-makers, especially in traditional male domains. Women's involvement in sport can make a sig­nificant contribution to public life and community development.

The benefits for women and girls of physical activity and sport

Although many of the clinical trials and epidemiological studies in health research have excluded women, the data available suggest that women derive many health benefits from an active lifestyle.³ The health benefits of women's participation in physical activ­ity and sport are now well established. Participation in sport and physical activ­ity can prevent a myriad of noncom-municable diseases which account for over 60 per cent of global deaths, 66 per cent of which occur in develop­ing countries.⁴ For girls, it can have a positive impact on childhood health, as well as reduce the risk of chronic dis­eases in later life.

For older women, it can contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular dis­eases, which account for one third of deaths among women around the world and half of all deaths among women over 50 in developing countries.⁵ Physi­cal activity also helps to reduce the effects of osteoporosis, which women

have a higher risk of developing than men.⁶ Participation in physical activity aids in the prevention and/or treatment of other chronic and degenerative dis­eases associated with aging, such as type-2 diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, osteoporosis and cardiovascular abnor­malities. It also helps in the manage­ment of weight and contributes to the formation and maintenance of healthy bones, muscles and joints. Physical activity can reduce the incidence of falls among older women.

An important role of physical activ­ity in the life of older women lies in prolonging independence. Much of the physical decline that was presumed an inevitable consequence of aging is now thought to be the result of inactivity. While no one can guarantee that exer­cise will prolong life, it can enhance the quality of life for older women who value their independence.⁷

The benefits for women and girls with disabilities are also well estab­lished. It has been noted that sport provides a double benefit to women with disabilities by providing affirma­tions of self-empowerment at both personal and collective levels.⁸ Apart from enhancing health, wellness and quality of life, participation in physical activity and sport develops skills such as teamwork, goal-setting, the pursuit of excellence in performance and other achievement-oriented behaviours that women and girls with disabilities may not be exposed to in other contexts.⁹

Participation in sport and physical activity can also facilitate good mental health for women of all ages, includ­ing the management of mental disor­ders such as Alzheimer's disease.¹⁰ It can promote psychological well-being through building self-esteem, confi­dence and social integration, as well as help reduce stress, anxiety, loneli­ness and depression. This is particu­larly important as rates of depression among women are almost double those of men in both developed and developing countries.¹¹ Adolescent girls in particular are vulnerable to anxi­ety and depressive disorders and are significantly more likely than boys to

have seriously considered suicide by the age of 15.¹²

In addition to improvements in health, women and girls stand to gain specific social benefits from partici­pation in sport and physical activity. Sport provides women and girls with an alternative avenue for participation in the social and cultural life of their communities and promotes enjoyment of freedom of expression, interper­sonal networks, new opportunities and increased self-esteem. It also expands opportunities for education and for the development of a range of essential life skills, including communication, leader­ship, teamwork and negotiation.

Inactive adults can rapidly improve their health and well-being by becom­ing moderately active on a regular basis. Physical activity need not be strenuous to achieve health benefits and it is never too late to gain benefits.¹³

Women, gender equality and sport

Introduction

"Bicycling has done more to emancipate women than any one thing in the world"

—Susan B. Anthony, suffragist, 1896

Women's participation in sport has a long history. It is a history marked by division and discrimination but also one filled with major accomplishments by female athletes and important advances for gender equality and the empower­ment of women and girls.

Among the many remarkable achievements are those of Helene Madison of the United States of America, the first woman to swim the 100-yard freestyle in one minute at the 1932 Olympics; Maria-Teresa de Filippis of Italy, the first woman to compete in a European Grand Prix auto race in 1958; Nawal El Moutawakel of Morocco, the first woman from an Islamic nation to win an Olympic medal for the 400-metre hurdles at the 1984 Olympics; and Tegla Loroupe of Kenya, who in 1994 became the first African woman to win a major marathon.¹ Women have taken up top leadership positions in sport, such as Presidents and Secretaries-General of National Olympic Committees. More and more women have also taken up employment opportunities in all areas of sport, including as coaches, manag­ers, officials and sport journalists.

These achievements were made in the face of numerous barriers based on gender discrimination. Women were often perceived as being too weak for sport, particularly endurance sports, such as marathons, weightlifting and cycling, and it was often argued in the

past that sport was harmful to wom­en's health, particularly their repro­ductive health. In 1896, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the modern Olympics, stated: "No matter how toughened a sportswoman may be, her organism is not cut out to sustain certain shocks."² Such stereotypes fuelled gender-based discrimination in physical education and in recreational and competitive sport, sporting organi­zations and sport media.