the oryofhopeasattachment process.

At the First Global Conference on Hope: Probing the Boundaries, Stephen Neff (2005) presented a theory of hope as attachment process. Attachment theory originated with J. Bowlby. Bowlby (1969/1999) postulated the existence of the attachment system as an evolved behavioral system in humans and other primates, designed by natural selection to maintain proximity between infants and their "attachment figures" (i.e., primary caregivers), with the purpose of protection from environmental dangers. If attachment figures are perceived as

76 Creativity, Spirituality, and Mental Health

insufficiently available, attachment behaviors ensue that are designed to bring the attachment figure into closer proximity. Neff in turn understands hope in terms of the projected attachment relationship. Positive attachments yield strong hope, and secure attachment results in the ability to engage in fantasy. "Anxious attachment," in turn, yields a lack of imagination, a lack of problem-solving skills. As attachment relationships change, so does one's hope - hope is intersubjective and essentially relational.

Lee Kirkpatrick (2005) in turn investigates God and religion in terms of attachment theory. Supernatural beings such as God, Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, or a saint or guardian angel can also serve as attachment figures. The mere knowledge of God's presence and accessibility enables a religious person to approach the problems of daily life, for the individual proceeds in the faith that God will be available to protect and comfort him or her when danger threatens. Five defining characteristics distinguish attachment figures from other close relationships: 1) the attached person seeks proximity to the caregiver, particularly when frightened or alarmed, 2) the caregiver provides care and protection and 3) a sense of security, 4) the threat of separation causes anxiety in the attached person, and 5) loss of the attachment figure would cause grief. God, surmises Kirkpatrick, functions as an adequate attachment figure: "An attachment figure who is simultaneously omnipresent, omniscient, and omnipotent would provide the most secure of secure bases" (p. 70). Kirkpatrick argues against a religious "instinct," however; religious beliefs instead are constructed, shaped and maintained by numerous psychological mechanisms and systems, the attachment system one among them. Religion can be potentially adaptive, maladaptive, or neutral.

In terms of hope, Neff, Bowlby, and Kirkpatrick point towards hope as way. People place their hope in someone or something. As stated, positive attachments result in stronger hope, whereas anxious attachment is detrimental to both hope and imagination. The transcendent can be the basis of hope, whereby individuals derive hope from their attachment to God. Just as with attachments to people, an insecure attachment to God may result in lower hope and hence be maladaptive.